My grandmother, standing at the right end of the middle row with a group of Western ladies invited to tea by Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908), seated front row and center, and her court, Peking, 1903. Although she was one of many concubines, Cixi rose by cunning and manipulation to control the government of China, initially because she bore the emperor a son and she could read and write Chinese. During the forty-seven years she controlled the government, China rose from a medieval to modern country; she banned foot-binding (thus initiating women’s liberation), outlawed barbaric punishments, modernized the military, and reformed the education and legal systems.